Ruth

1

Elimelech, Naomi and their sons, Mahlon and Chilion, move to Moab because of a famine. The sons marry the Moabites Orpah and Ruth; Elimelech and sons die. Naomi sets out back to Bethlehem, and tries to persuade Orpah and Ruth to return to their own people. Saying she is too old to bear sons for them to marry. Orpah returns, but Ruth eloquently insists that she wants to stay with her mother-in-law: ‘your people shall be my people, and your God, my God.’ Naomi renames herself Mara, meaning ‘bitter’. They arrive at Bethlehem in the time of the barley harvest.


2

Ruth gleans barley in Bethlehem from Boaz’s field until end of harvest. Boaz is a relative of Elimelech. Hearing of her loyalty to Naomi, Boaz shows kindness to Ruth, insisting that she gleans from his field alone, and allowing her to glean from sheaves already gathered. Ruth shares the gleanings to Naomi.


3

Ruth visits Boaz during the night, and lies at Boaz’s feet until morning. Boaz accepts Ruth, impressed that she has not gone after young men, and gives her extra barley. Boaz mentions, however, that there is a closer relative, who has a greater right to be her goel (redeemer) and marry her. Ruth returns home with barley.


4

Naomi’s kinsman at first seems willing to redeem Elimelech’s land which Naomi sold. Part of his duty as goel is to marry Ruth too, however, and the kinsman in unwilling because he would have ‘ruin his inheritance’, ie, have to split it between the children he presumably already has, and any future children he would have with Ruth. Boaz takes off his sandal, as the sign that he has become Elimelech’s goel. The witnesses bless them, wishing their house may be like the house of Perez (ancestor of the Bethlemites), whom Tamar bore to Judah. Boaz marries Ruth, who gives birth to Obed, who gives birth to Jesse, who gives birth to King David.

Judges

Redaction issues:

·         Consensus since Noth’s Deuteronomic History (1943) is that Judges is part of a sequence redacted by a single author from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings.

·         A. D. H. Mayes, Judges (1985) – complex redaction history:

Ø  Deliverer narratives – Ehud, Deborah and Barak, Gideon and Abimelech

Ø  A framework of sin-punishment-deliverance was added, perhaps after the fall of the northern kingdom

Ø  Othniel account

Ø  First Deuteronomic redaction: addition of Jephthah and Samson

Ø  Second Deuteronomic redaction portraying Israelite sin as covenant violation (2:17, 2:20-3:6; 10:10-16)

Ø  Addition of prologue and epilogue

Brief summary:

·         After the death of Joshua, Judah takes over, and defeats the king of Bezek, cutting off his big toes and thumbs.

·         Southern Canaan is conquered.

·         A recurring cycle of sin, bondage, deliverance by a Judge, blessing, death of the Judge, and back to sin again.

·         In the era of Barak, Deborah prophesies that Sisera (the military commander of king Jabin, under whom the Israelite serve) will be killed by a woman. He is killed by a tentpeg through the skull by Jael, wife of Heber the Kenite.

·         Gideon is chosen to deliver Israel from the Midianites. He destroys an altar of Baal-Berith (Baal of the covenant – a syncretistic god).

·         Gideon receives signs – a wet fleece on a dry ground, and vice versa.

·         Gideon’s 32,000 strong army is wittled down to 300, so it is obvious the Lord secured their victory.

·         Gideon’s company surround the Midianite camp, blow trumpets and shout, whereupon the Midianites panic and kill each other.

·         In revenge for not helping him, Gideon publically whips the men of Succoth with thorns and briars, and destroys the tower of Penuel and kills its men.

·         Gideon becomes rich, and inappropriately makes a golden ephod for himself.

·         Gideon dies.

·         Gideon’s son, Abimelech, kills all his brothers, apart from Jotham, who manages to escape.

·         Abimelech is killed by a woman throwing a millstone on his head during a rebellion of the Shechemites.

·         Jephthah, the leader of a band of brigands after having been driven from his house because he was the son of a harlot, fights victoriously against the Ammonites.

·         Jephthah (from Gilead in Manasseh) makes the vow that he will sacrifice the first thing that comes to greet him after a victory. It is his daughter. She is allowed to bewail her virginity for two months before her death.

·         The Ephraimites are angry that they could not fight with the Gileadites from Manasseh against the Ammonites. The Gileadites defeat the Ephraimites, who flee back over the Jordon. The Gileadites ask the fleeing Ephraimites to say the word ‘shibboleth’ – if they pronounce it in the distinctive Ephraimite way (saying the sh as a s) they are killed.

·         Angel appears to Manoah, telling her she will bear a son, Samson. Samson is a Nazarite from his birth.

·         Samson marries a Philistine woman, and eats honey from the carcass of a dead lion.

·         Samson poses a riddle about the lion at a feast. Samson’s wife reveals the answer to the Philistines, who answer the question. Samson: ‘if you had not ploughed with my heifer, you would not have solved my riddle!’ Samson kills the Philistines.

·         Samson’s wife has been given to another man. Samson sends foxes with torches attached to their tails through the Philistine crops. The Philistines retaliate by killing Samson’s wife and family with fire.

·         Samson kills a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of an ass.

·         Samson escapes from Gaza by ripping off the gates of the city.

·         Samson is betrayed by Delilah, blinded, and destroys the temple of Dagon.

·         Micah makes an unauthorised shrine, and hires an opportunistic Levite priest.

·         Danites conquer Laish, take Micah’s idols and Levite, and adopt the idolatry he started.

·         A Levite avoids being raped at Gibeah (a Benjamite town) by offering his concubine up to a mob. The concubine is raped and dies. The Levite cuts her up into pieces and sends her parts across the land to advertise his outrage.

·         Covenant against Bejamites at Mizpah – no Israelite daughter is to be given to a Benjamite. The Benjamites are heavily defeated in battle.

·         The Banjamites are in danger of extinction. The men of Jabesh Gilead (who did not take part in the slaughter at Mizpah) are slaughtered, and four hundred of their virgins are married off to Benjamites.

·         The Benjamites are instructed to take the daughters of Shiloh when they go to dance at the annual feast – because they are ‘kidnapped’ (though the complicity of their father is hinted at), they are not guilty of breaking their oath.

1

Judah is chosen to go up against the Canaanites after the death of Joshua. With his brother Simeon, he defeats 10,000 men at Bezek. They cut off the big toes and thumbs of the kings of Bezek, who had had seventy kings with no thumbs or big toes eating scraps under his table. The king of Bezek dies in Jerusalem, which the Israelites take. South Canaan (Hebron and Debir) is conquered. Othniel is rewarded for taking Kirjath Sepher by marrying the Caleb’s daughter, Achsah. Caleb also receives Hebron. The Canaanites in the lowlands could not be expelled, however, because they had iron chariots. Ephraim and Manasseh take Bethel, sparing a man who shows them the entrance to the city. The Canaanites who cannot be cannot utterly destroyed are put under tribute.


2

The angel of the Lord reprimands the Israelites at Bochim for making covenants with the Canaanites. Israel repent and offer sacrifices at Bochim. After Joshua dies aged 110 and is buried in the mountains of Ephraim, a new generation arises who do not know the Lord. The Israelites forsake God and follow other gods. As a result, they are defeated in battle by plunderers. A pattern emerges of sin and bondage, deliverance by a Judge, blessing, followed by the death of the Judge, and then further sin and bondage.


3

The Philistines, all the Canaanites, the Sidonians, and the Hivites are left in the promised land to punish Israel for its disobedience and intermarrying. Israel falls into the servitude of the king of Mesopotamia for eight years. When Israel cries out to the Lord, He raises up Othniel to deliver Israel. Othniel does so, and dies. Israel is disobedient once more, and so is made to serve Eglon king of Moab. Ehud daringly assassinates the obese Eglon, stabbing him in his belly when coming to offer tribute. Ehud defats Moab in battle, and there is peace for eighty years. Next is Shamgar, who kills 600 Philistines with an ox goad.


4

Israel does evil; Israel serves king Jabin, who has iron chariots. Deborah judges Israel, calling upon Barak to go into battle against Sisera, Jabin’s military commander. Barak says he will only go if accompanied by Deborah. Deborah prophesies that Sisera will de defeated by a woman. Sisera’s army is defeated. Sisera flees on foot, and is killed in a tent with a tent peg through the skull by Jael, the wife of Heber of the nomadic Kenites (who descend from Moses’ father-in-law Hobab).


5

Deborah and Barak sing a song of victory and praise to the Lord about battle with kings of Canaan. The tribes who assisted are acknowledged; of those who did not, questions are asked. Jael is praised, despite abusing the laws of hospitality. The anxiety of Sisera’s mother waiting for him to return from battle is gleefully imagined. Israel rests for 40 years.


6

Israel does evil, and serves Midian for seven years. The angel of the Lord appears to Gideon, and tells him he will deliver the Israelites from the Midianites. Gideon is initially suspicious, because he is from Manasseh, the least of the tribes. As a sign, fire shoots from a rock and cosumes Gideon’s offering of meat and bread. Gideon builds an altar at the place, Ophrah. Gideon destroys an altar of Baal-Berith at night, and replaces it with an altar to God. Gideon is found out, but his father says that Baal-Berith himself should plead against him if he is offended. Gideon thus acquires the name Jerubbaal, meaning ‘Let Baal plead’. Gideon gathers an army. Gideon seeks signs – he puts a fleece on the floor, and asks for there to be dew only on the fleece, but not on the ground. This is done. Then Gideon asks for the ground to be bedewed, and the fleece dry. This is done also.


7

Gideon gathers Israelite men to fight. God is anxious lest victory is ascribed to the Israelites’ might, rather than to Him. All those who are afraid are commanded to go home – this reduces the number to 10,000 from 32,000. The number is further reduced to 300 by a test by a river – all those who drink by lapping like a dog, or on their knees, are dismissed. Gideon spies on the Midian camp with his servant Purah. Gideon hears a man relating a dream of a loasf of barley bread striking his tent and causing it to fall. The dream is interpreted as meaning that the Midianites will be given up to Gideon. Gideon divides the company into three groups – upon his signal, the company are to blow their trumpets and shout, ‘The sword of the Lord and of Gideon!’ When this is done, the Midianites in a panic kill each other. Two Midianite kings are killed.


8

The men of Ephraim complain that they were not asked to fight with Gideon. Gideon replies, ‘What was I able to do in comparison to you?’ and their anger subsides. The men of Succoth and Penuel deny support for Gideon. Two Midianite kings and their armies are destroyed, then takes revenge on Succoth and Penuel. Gideon refuses to be made king, saying that the Lord will rule the Israelites. Gideon amasses a fortune by taking golden earrings as spoils. Gideon inappropriately uses some of the gold to make an ephod, assuming the role of religious leadership, despite the fact that the tabernacle is actually at Shiloh. Israel has peace 40 years. Gideon has seventy sons, and many wives. One of Gideon’s sons is called Abimelech. After Gideon’s death, however, the Israelites turn from God once more.


9

Abimelech convinces his brothers to support him. They give him silver from the temple of Baal-Berith, and then he kills them all, apart from Jotham, who hides. Jotham’s parable: worthy trees (olivem fig and vine) do not wish to become the king of the trees, so the role is assumed by the bramble, who promises he will destroy with fire any who oppose him. The parable is applied to Abimelech. Abimelech having reigned three years, the Shechemites, headed by Gaal the son of Ebed, conspire against him. Zebul, governor of the city, apprises Abimelech of the insurrection, so Abimelech assaults the city, takes, beats it down, and sows it with salt. Several of the Shechemites take refuge in the temple of Baal-Berith; Abimelech sets fire to it, and destroys in it about one thousand men and women. He afterwards besieges and takes Thebez; but while he is assaulting the citadel, a woman throws a piece of millstone upon his head, and kills him. Abimelech asks his armourbearer to kill him, lest it be known that he was killed by a woman. Thus God requited him and the men of Shechem for their wickedness, and their ingratitude to the family of Gideon.


10

Tola and Jair judge Israel. Israel forgets God and serves many gods. Israelites serve the Philistines and Ammonites. Israel cries to God for help. God’s patience is sorely tested after the repeated cycles of idolatry, servitude and deliverance. Israel lacks a leader.


11

Jephthah from Gilead in Manasseh is the leader of a band of brigands, driven out of his home because he was the son of a harlot. The leaders of Gilead call upon Jephthah when under attack from the Ammonites. Jephthah becomes the leader of the Gileadites. He attempts to answer the accusation that the Israelites have taken away territory from the Ammonites, but to no avail. Jephthah rashly vows that if he is victorious in battle, he will yield up the first out his door as a burnt offering. Jephthah helps Israel defeat Ammonites. His daughter (his only child) comes to greet him, and he is forced to sacrifice her. Before this, she is permitted to bewail her virginity for two months on the mountains.


12

The men of Ephraim are angry at not being asked to fight against the Ammonites. Jephthah replies that they did not act when they had the chance. The Gileadites defeat the Ephraimites, whose survivors try to flee back over the Jordon. The Gileadites, guarding the fords of the Jordan, asking anyone asking to cross to say the word ‘shibboleth’. If they pronounced it in an Ephraimite way (saying the sh as a s), they were killed. Jephthah judges Israel 6 yrs; he is followed by Ibzan, Elon and Abdon.


13

Philistines rule the Israelites for forty years. An angel appears firstly to the barren wife of the Danite Manoah, then to Manoah himself. The angel says that they will have a son who will deliver Israel. The child will be a Nazarite from the womb – no shaving or drinking alcohol permitted. Manoah is told to make a burnt offering, and the angel ascends in the flame of the alter. Manoah is afraid, but is reassured by his wife. Samson is born.


14

Samson wants to marry a Philistine woman from Timnah. God has a hidden plan behind Samson’s desire to marry this woman, however. On his way to Timnah, Samson kills a lion. On the way back, he sees bees and honey in the carcass, so eats some of the honey. (Nazarites are forbidden from touching anything dead – Samson is on dangerous ground here.) He also gives some honey to his parents, but does not tell them where it came from. Samson throws a bachelor party for his Philistine friends. He poses them a riddle: ‘out of the eater came something to eat, and out of the strong came something sweet.’ The prize for working it out is thirty linen garments. The men threaten Samson’s wife, telling her they will burn her and her father’s house if she does not extract the answer from Samson and tell them. She manages to do so, and the men answer the riddle. Samson replies, ‘If you had not ploughed with my heifer, you would not have solved my riddle!’ Samson kills thirty Philistines, takes their linen garments, and uses them to pay the bet. Samson goes back to his father’s house, and his wife goes off with his best man.


15

When he discovers his wife has been given to another by his father-in-law, Samson set foxes with torches attached to their tails through the Philistine crops, destroying them. The Philistines retaliate by killing Samson's wife and family with fire. Samson responds with a great slaughter. The men of Judah deliver up Samson bound to the Philistines. Samson breaks free of his bonds, and kills a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. God miraculously provides water for Samson, who judges Israel for twenty years.


16

Samson escapes from Gaza by ripping off the gates of the city. A woman whom Samson loves, Delilah, agrees to betray him. Samson twice lies to Delilah about the source of his strength, saying he will be weakened if bound with fresh bowstrings, and new rope. Delilah ties him up with these things, but he soon bursts out of them. Samson lies again, saying he is weakened if seven locks of his hair are woven into the web of a loom. Delilah does this, but again, Samson’s strength is unaffected. Samson finally tells her that his strength lies in his hair. She shaves him when asleep, and he is delivered over to the Philistines and blinded. He is kept prisoner by the Philistines, but his hair grows back. Samson is called out into the temple of Dagon. He stands between two pillars, prays, then pushes the pillar so the temple collapses, killing many Philistines and himself. He had ruled Israel for twenty years.


17

Micah of Ephraim returns silver he had stolen from his mother. His mother bizarrely blesses him, after having cursed the unknown thief before! Two hundred shekels of it are given to a silversmith to create an idol. Micah then makes a shrine and an ephod, and consecrates one of his sons as a priest. Micah hires a wandering Levite from Bethlehem to be a priest. Micah is assured of the Lord’s favour!


18

Dan sends spies to find land. The spies meet Micah. Spies and 600 men from Dan take Micah’s idols and priest (who is quite happy to go). Micah is glum, having had everything taken from him. The Danites conquer Laish, renaming it Dan. They adopt the idolatry that began with Micah.


19

A Levite marries a concubine from Judah. They separate after she plays the harlot, but are later reconciled at the house of his father-in-law, where he stays for five days. Returning home, the Levite and his concubine decide to stay one night at Gibeah (not Jebus, which is a foreign land that might be hostile). They meet an Ephraimite, who offers them hospitality. Men bang on the door and demand to know the Levite carnally. The Ephraimite offers a compromise – his virgin daughter and the Levite’s concubine. The latter is raped and abused, and dies. The Levite cuts her up into twelve pieces, and sends a piece to each tribe to advertise his outrage.


20

The nation gathers at Mizpah, demanding that the Bejamites give up the wicked men of Gibeah. The Benjamites refuse, and go to war against the rest of Israel with 26,000 men. After some initial victories, the Benjamites are heavily defeated.


21

At Mizpah, an oath was made that no Israelite daughter should be given to a Benjamite. The Israelites then regret their oath when they realise that the Benjamites are in danger of extinction. The men of Jabesh Gilead, who had not taken part in the oath at Mizpah, are slaughtered, and four hundred virgins taken to marry off to the Benjamites. The Benjamites are instructed to take the daughters of Shiloh when they go to dance at the annual feast – because they are ‘kidnapped’ (though the complicity of their father is hinted at), they are not guilty of breaking their oath. Final words sum the whole book up: ‘In those days there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his own eyes.’

Joshua

Brief Summary

·         Spies are helped in Jericho by the harlot Rahab. She is spared by being told to hang a scarlet chord from her window.

·         Crossing of the Jordan with the ark – it stops flowing to allow them to pass.

·         Twelve-stoned shrines are erected in the middle of the Jordan, and at Gilgal.

·         Israelites are circumcised at Gilgal (as they have not been during the wilderness years). Passover celebrated at Gilgal.

·         Joshua meets a Commander of the Lord, who tells Joshua to remove his sandals because he walks on holy earth.

·         Israelites march silently round Jericho for six days, then on the seventh, the walls fall when trumpets are blown.

·         Israelites are defeated at Ai because Achan takes ‘accursed things’. He is stoned and burnt, along with his children.

·         Ai is taken, and the king of Ai hung from a tree.

·         Blessings are read from Mount Gerizim, and curses from Mount Ebal.

·         Gibeonites pretend they have come from a long way, and make a covenant with the Israelites. When Joshua discovers the deception, he cannot destroy them because of the covenant, so he enslaves them.

·         Joshua defeats the southern Canaanite kings. The sun stands still during a battle.

·         Joshua defeats the northern Canaanite kings.

·         Canaan is allocated to the Israelite tribes. Jesbusites remain in Jerusalem.

·         Cities of refuge, levite cities and Levite suburbs (‘common lands’) are created.

·         Passing anxiety about a transjordan altar is expressed.

·         Joshua renews covenant at Shechem. Consequences of disobedience are made plain.

1

God tells Joshua to cross the Jordan. Command to be of courage, and immerse himself in the law. Joshua reminds the eastern tribes of their military obligations. They pledge him their allegiance.


2

Joshua sends two spies to Jericho. They go to the house of a harlot called Rahab. The king of Jericho gets wind of this, but Rahab says the men have left – in actual fact, they were hiding in the flax on her roof. Rahab tells the spies what fear there is of the Israelites, and begs that she and her family may be saved on account of the favour she has performed. The spies assure her she will be. Rahab (who lives on the walls) lets the spies down and tells them to hide in the mountains for three days. The spies tell her to hang a scarlet chord to her window and keep her family within – this will keep them safe. The spies are not answerable for anybody’s safety if they leave her house. The spies return to Joshua.


3

The people instructed to follow the ark at a distance. The ark leads the way. God tells Joshua that when the feet of the Levites carrying the ark step into the waters of Jordan, its flow will be stopped. It is indeed the case – all Israel cross over as the priests stood firm.


4

On the orders of God, Joshua commands one man from each tribe to take a stone from where the priests stood, and take it with him to his lodging. Joshua then erects twelve stones himself in the middle of the Jordan, where the priests stood. 40,000 prepared for war cross over to the plains of Jericho; when the priests step out of the river, the flow of water resumes. Joshua sets up the twelves stones at Gilgal, east of Jericho, as a memorial.


5

The Amorites and Canaanites to the west of Jericho become fearful. The Israelites born in the wilderness have not been circumcised. They now are at Gilgal. Passover celebrated at Gilgal; provision of manna then stops, as the Israelites can eat the food of the land of Canaan. By Jericho, Joshua meets a military man who describes himself at the Commander of the Lord (angel? type of Christ?). Joshua worships him. He tells Joshua to remove his sandals, for he steps on holy earth.


6

Jericho shut up in defence. Lord tells Joshua that the army shall march silently round the walls for six days, led by seven priests carrying the ark and blowing trumpets; on the seventh day, the seven priests shall blow seven trumpets, and everyone will shout, and the walls will fall. The plan effected, and Jericho is utterly destroyed – only Rahab is spared. Gold and silver is taken, but nothing else. Joshua curses the man who would re-fortify Jericho.


7

Against the Lord’s orders, Achan takes some accursed things (which should have been utterly destroyed). Joshua sends spies up to Ai. They advise that two or three thousand alone can take it. In fact, Ai defeats the Israelites, and their courage fails. The Lord reveals the defeat is because someone has taken accursed things. The accursed things must be destroyed, and the guilty burnt to death. Achan confesses – he took a beautiful Babylonian garment, a wedge of gold, and some silver. Achan and his children are stoned and burnt. The Lord turns from the fierceness of his anger.


8

God commands Joshua to take city of Ai. Joshua leads Israel to capture, ambush and conquer Ai; 30,000 lead the ambush, destroying Ai by fire when its warriors are busy pursuing the Israelite army as they make an apparent retreat. The king of Ai is hanged on a tree until evening. Joshua builds an altar on Mount Ebal. Blessings are read from Mount Gerizim, and curses from Mount Ebal.


9

Kings west of Jordan join together to fight Israel. Gibeonites dress shabbily with torn wineskins and mouldy provisions, as if they have come a long way, and seek a covenant with Joshua. Joshua does so, without seeking the counsel of the Lord. When the deception is uncovered, they are compelled to let the Gibeonites live, because of the oath they made. Instead, Joshua makes them slaves to the Israelites.


10

Joshua comes from the camp at Gilgal to leads Israel against the forces of the southern kings of Jerusalem, Jarmuth, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron, Debir and others, when they attack Gibeon for its covenant with Israel. The Lord fights with the Israelites at Gibeon and kills the enemy with hailstones. The sun miraculously stands still during the battle. The five kings hide in a cave, then trapped by a large stone. When the kings are captured, Joshua commands his officers to place their feet on the kings’ necks. The kings are then killed, and hung from trees until evening. Their territories fall soon after.


11

Jabin king of Hazor with many kingdoms in the north fight against Israel; Joshua leads Israel in destroying these kingdoms, hamstringing the horses and burning the chariots. Victory is thus complete over both north and south Canaan.


12

List of kingdoms which Israel defeated: first, many on east side of Jordan River (starting with lands of Sihon and Og), then 31 kings on the west side in the promised land.


13

Joshua is old, but God tells him there is much land that remains to be conquered. The land will divided by lot among the tribes. The eastern territories for Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh are defined. Levi inherits no land, for the Lord is their inheritance.


14

Land of Canaan distributed to tribes of Israel. Caleb and the children of Judah request and receive from Joshua the mountain of Hebron – the mountain he passed over to spy on Canaan in Numbers 13.


15

Land allocation of tribe of Judah is defined. The Jebusites remain in Jerusalem, however. Caleb gives his daughter to Othniel. Caleb gives extra land to his daughter.


16

Land allocation of children of Joseph is defined separately for Manasseh and Ephraim. The Canaanites in Gezar remain the servants of Ephraim.


17

Ephraim’s and Manasseh’s territory defined and expanded. They complain there is not enough land for them, so Joshua tells them to take the some mountain territory which had not been completely conquered. The daughters of Zelophehad (who had no male heirs) are given land. Israel forces some Canaanites to work rather than drive them from the land.


18

Israel assembles at Shiloh and sets up the tabernacle. Seven tribes have no inheritance, so the remaining land is divided by lot. Benjamin’s land is defined.


19

Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan are allocated land. Dan’s territory expands after conquering Leshem. Joshua himself is given an inheritance – Timnath Serah in the mountains of Ephraim, where he builds a city. The land division is complete.


20

Kadesh, Shechem, Kirjatharba, Bezer, Ramoth and Golan are appointed as cities of refuge for manslayers who accidentally kill people.


21

Levites given 48 cities and their common lands from other tribes as inheritance. God give Israel all the things He promised; no enemies stand before Israel.


22

Reuben, Gad and half Manasseh return to the east side of Jordan with Joshua’s blessing. The tribes build a great altar by the Jordon. Anxiety is expressed that the altar is pagan, and accusations are made by Phinehas the high priest, but the tribes reply that the altar allows them to worship God despite their separation from the rest of Israel. The rest of Israel is satisfied.


23

Israel rests for a long time. Joshua becomes old, and speaks to the leaders of Israel about following God and the loss of land that will follow from disobedience and intermarriage with the indigenous peoples.

24

Joshua gathers all tribes at Shechem. The story of the journey from Egypt to the promised land is given (with the giving of the law at Sinai omitted – see von Rad). The consequences of disobedience are again emphasised, but Israel is insistent that it will obey God. The covenant is renewed, and its words commemorated on stone. Joshua and Eleazar die. Joseph’s bones are buried at Shechem.

Deuteronomy

This was the book discovered during the renovation of the Temple under Josiah. It was at the very least significantly edited during Josiah’s time to justify his religious reforms and centralisation policy. The ‘Jahweh alone’ movement had been brought to Judah by refugees after the destruction of Israel by the Assyrian empire. Previous to this, Jahweh had been worshipped only as the most powerful of a variety of gods. Deuteronomy must be seen in terms of Josiah’s exclusivist agenda. Parts of the book, including the final couple of chapters, were written during exile – they provide disobedience as the theological reason for the scattering of the nation. Subsequent history books of the Old Testament (the Deuteronomistic histories of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) anachronistically judge leaders according to ‘Jahweh alone’ criteria. Hezekiah, a hero for his defiance of Assyria, is claimed (as a piece of Josiah-era propaganda?) as a centraliser and a reformer.

There is no reference to priestly codes and procedures in this book, suggesting its anteriority to P.


1

The words of Moses when Israel was camped on the plains of Moab. Moses recounts history of Israel: defeat of Amorites, appointment of deputies, twelve spies (though he only mentions the good reports), how Israel were afraid to enter promised land, and then attacked by the Amorites (not Amalekites, as in Numbers 14).


2

Moses recounts history of Israel: passing through Edom, Moab (spared because of Lot), Kadesh Barnea and Ammon (also spared because of Lot). The defeat of Sihon, king of Heshbon.


3

Moses recounts history of Israel: Og king of Bashan defeated (he was the last of a race of giants, and his bedstead measured 9 by 4 cubits); Reubenites, Gadites and half Manasseh were given the land east of Jordan. Moses was not allowed to enter the promised land, although he only says that God was angry with him on account of the Israelites, and does not mention his sin at Meribah in Numbers 20.


4

Moses recounts history of Israel: God made Israel a great nation, with laws which are unrivalled among the nations. Not a word is to be added or taken away from the law. Ten Commandments, the necessity of avoiding idolatry and obeying God. A warning to not forget the covenant (probably written during the Babylonian captivity!) The price of serving other gods is exile among the nations. God will have mercy on exiled Israel, however. Israel’s special status. The cities of refuge.


5

Moses recounts: God speaks to Moses and makes covenant with Israel. The Ten Commandments are repeated in full. Israel responds in fear to God. God responds with what sounds like proleptic regret: ‘Oh, that they had such a heart in them that they would fear Me and always keep all My commandments!’


6

The shema (Hebrew for ‘hear’): ‘Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength.’ This command must be in the heart, bound on the hand and forehead (in phylacteries), and on the doorpost (in a mezuzah). Israelites warned not to forget the Lord in times of prosperity, and go after other gods. Instruct your children in the commands of God.


7

The command to completely destroy the Canaanites and their culture, and not make covenants with them. The Israelites are a holy people, set apart from others. Prosperity and abundant blessings in return for obedience. Have confidence in God’s strength, and do not share in Canaanite abominations.


8

God had humbled and tested the Israelites by subjecting them to forty years in the wilderness. God gave you manna so you might know that man does not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God (cited by Jesus during his temptation in the wilderness). God will give Israel a good land. Warning against pride during times of prosperity – do not forget the tribulations of the wilderness years, and how the Lord provided. Do not forget God, otherwise you will perish.


9

The battles ahead will be difficult, but the Lord will go before you as a consuming fire. The dangers of pride when God grants them victory – the succeed not because of their righteousness, but because of the wickedness of the indigenous peoples. Israelites warned to recall past rebellions against the Lord. The golden calf story is recounted, as well as other instances when the Israelites’ faith failed. Moses’ intercessions for the Israelites when they rebelled.


10

New tablets of stone, to replace the smashed ones, written on by God, then placed in an ark. The establishment of Levites as priests; they have no inheritance. The Lord is the God of gods; the Israelites are commanded to serve Him whole-heartedly (picking up the language of the shema once more). Circumcision is a sign that the Israelites are no longer stiff-necked. Love strangers, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.The Lord has multiplied the Israelites.


11

Moses’ recap: God’s greatness against Egypt, and against Dathan and Abiram. The good things in promised land; the dangers of turning to serve other gods; phylacteries and mezuzah; the blessings that will follow from obedience. The choice: a blessing or a curse. The blessings will be recited on Mount Gerizim and the curses on Mount Ebal.


12

Moses speaks to Israel: destroy other nations’ gods (including their high places). God is to be worshipped in a prescribed place (centralisation of worship). Bring offerings to the place God chooses. Spill blood and do not eat it. Do not follow other gods; disapproving reference to Molech worship, which involves burning children.


13

Moses speaks to Israel: commands regarding false gods, false worship, false prophets (a test from God), false miracles, and false dreams. The penalty for apostacy is stoning, even if the offender is a near relative. Apostate cities will be utterly destroyed.


14

Moses speaks to Israel: no shaving the front of your head as part of your mourning rituals (as the pagans do). A list of clean and unclean animals. The tithe is to be offered up in a prescribed place, and enjoyed in a ceremonial meal. If distance prevented the easy transport of the animals, they could exchange their tithe for money, and then use the money to tithe with when they came to the tabernacle (and later, the temple). Every third year, the tithe is for the nonlanded (Levites, aliens, fatherless, and widows).


15

Moses speaks to Israel: all debts cancelled after seven years. Be generous to the poor – do not refrain from lending because the Sabbath year approaches. Hebrew slaves to be released every seventh year, and not turned out empty-handed. The slave who wishes to continue serving will have his ear pierced with an awl. The firstborn of the herd or flock (if it does not have any defect) is to be sanctified to the Lord.


16

Moses speaks to Israel: observe the Passover and eat unleavened bread. Passover sacrifices must be at a prescribed place. Observe the Feast of Weeks, seven weeks after Passover, and Tabernacles, which is also a harvest festival. Appointed judges and officers must be impartial and not take bribes. Idol trees built next to altars are forbidden, as are pillars.


17

Moses speaks to Israel: sacrifices are to be without blemish. Worship of false gods is punishable by stoning. Three witnesses are required for a capital offence. Higher courts of appeal are presided over by the Levites – it is a capital offence not to abide by their ruling. God will give Israel a king when they ask for one. The king shall not multiply horses (ie, have a huge army), or have many wives. The king will write out a copy of the law personally.


18

Moses speaks to Israel: the Lord is the inheritance of the Levites. From a typical sacrifice, the priests will receive the shoulder, the cheeks, and the stomach. All Levites have equal rights to the offerings. Canaanite occult practices and sacrifices (including the ritual burning of children) are forbidden. The Lord will raise up a prophet like Moses who must be obeyed. False prophets whose word does not come to pass must die.


19

Moses speaks to Israel: three cities of refuge are to be founded, centrally located and easily accessible. An example of manslaughter: a head coming off the handle of an axe and killing someone. When the Israelite territory expands, three more cities of refuge are to be created. People who commit premeditated murder are not allowed refuge. Removing your neighbours landmark is forbidden. Two or three witnesses are required for a prosecution. If a false witness is discovered, he shall have that done to him which he sought to do unto another. Eye for an eye.


20

Moses speaks to Israel: have military faith in the Lord. The priest will speak words of encouragement to those about to go into battle. The officers of Israelite army will send home all soldiers who have unfinished business at home: a home not dedicated, a vineyard not harvested, or an engaged woman not married. The fainthearted are also to be sent home. A (non-Israelite) city is to be offered the chance to be placed under tribute peacefully before battle is waged. If battle is waged, then all males are to be killed; the women, children and other spoils may be plundered freely. Canaanite cities, however, are to be completely destroyed. During a siege, trees that yield fruit are not to be cut down.


21

Moses speaks to Israel: laws regarding sacrifices for murder-polluted land (a heifer has its neck broken, prayers). Captive women taken for wives must have their heads shaved, and be allowed to mourn for a month; they must not be treated brutally, and they must be set free rather than sold for money at a later stage if the husband does not delight in her. The younger son of a loved wife must not be favoured over the elder son of an unloved wife in terms of inheritance. A rebellious son will be stoned to death. Those whose bodies are mounted up on a tree must be cut down before nighttime.


22

Moses speaks to Israel: you must not hide away livestock or other property which your brother has lost. Transvestism not allowed. If the young of a nest are taken, the mother is not also to be taken. Rooves needs parapets. Four laws of separation: no sowing your vineyard with different kinds of seeds, no plowing with a donkey and an ox together, no wearing clothes of different materials, corners of clothing must have tassels on them (to distinguish from other peoples). In cases where a new wife is suspected of not being a virgin, the marital cloth would be presented to the elders, and be inspected for blood. If it is found she is a virgin, the man must marry her and may not divorce her; if she is not a virgin, she will be stoned to death. Both the man and the woman in an adulterous relationship will be condemned to death. If a man rapes a betrothed woman, he shall be stoned to death. The woman herself suffers no penalty. If a man rapes a woman who is not betrothed, he must pay money to the woman’s family, and marry her. A man shall not take his father’s wife.


23

Moses speaks to Israel: eunuchs are excluded from the congregation of Israel, and the illegitimate, down to the tenth generation, are excluded from the assembly (civil leadership). Ammonites and Moabites are to be excluded from the assembly, but Edomites (who are you brothers) and Egyptians are not. A man in a military camp who has a nocturnal emission must leave the camp and cleanse himself. Soldiers must carry shovels to bury their refuse. Israelites will provide asylum for foreign escaped slaves. Ritual prostitution disallowed; no bringing the wages of a harlot as an offering. Only foreigners must be charged interest on loans. Vows must be kept – it is not a sin not to make a vow.


24

Moses speaks to Israel: no remarrying a divorced wife. A man will not to required to go to war for the first year of his marriage. Do not take someone’s livelihood (eg a millstone) as a pledge. Kidnapped is forbidden. Break with outbreaks of leprosy according to the law. When a pledge was taken for a loan, it had to be received at the door of the man’s house, in a way that kept his poor man’s dignity. The pledge of a blanket or a sleeping garment must be returned to a poor man before nightfall. Poor workers must be paid daily. A person will be put to death for his own sin, not for that of a son or a father. You must be compassionate to the poor and fatherless, and leave gleanings for the poor.


25

Moses speaks to Israel: forty blows is the limit for corporal punishment. You shall not muzzle an ox that treads the grain. Levirate law: the brother of a married man who has died without children must marry her widow. If he does not, the widow may remove his sandals and spit in his face. If a woman gets involved in her husband’s fight and grabs someone by the genitals, her hand must be chopped off. Weights and measures must be just. The Amalekites must be completely destroyed.


26

Moses speaks to Israel: firstfruits must be offered in the prescribed place. Words of thanks are a summary of God’s deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt. Prayers for the giving of tithes are also prescribed. Demand for complete obedience made; God proclaims that the Israelites are His special people.


27

Moses speaks to Israel: command to build an altar of whitewashed stones at Mount Ebal. The stones will have the words of the law written on them. Half the tribes will gather at Mount Gerizim, to utter God’s blessings; the other half shall gather at Mount Ebal, to utter his curses. Long list of those who are to be cursed: those who disobey their parents, lie with animals, take bribes etc.


28

Moses speaks to Israel: the blessings if Israel obeys God – the fruit of your body, the produce of your ground etc. More curses if Israel disobeys God, including being scattered among all peoples – the list of curses is much longer!


29

Moses speaks to Israel: God reminds the Israelites of his provision for them in the wilderness. The covenant is renewed. Harsh punishment is promised to the covenant-breaker. All other nations will know of their disobedience, and its consequences. Some things the Lord has kept secret; but he has revealed the law so the Israelites may demonstrate their obedience (or disobedience).


30

Moses speaks to Israel: after Israel disobeys and is scattered, God will bring them back to prosper. The hearts of the Israelites will be circumcised, and further blessings ensue. The law is revealed, and therefore accessible – there is no excuse for not obeying it. A choice between life and death is presented: heaven and earth are witnesses.


31

Moses tells the Israelites he is 120 years old, and cannot cross over the Jordan to the promised land. God commands the Israelites to be strong, and the same will happen to their enemies as happened to Sihon and Og. Moses commands Joshua to be strong. Every seven years at the Feast of Tabernacles, the Levites were to perform a public reading of the law. Joshua is inaugurated as leader in the tabernacle, with Moses also present. The Israelites will be guilty of apostasy, and be abandoned by God. God’s words are placed in the ark, and will serve as a witness against the Israelites. The elders and officials gather to hear God’s words.


32

Moses teaches God’s song to Israel and encourages Israel. The song is firstly about God’s greatness and justice. Then an accusation is made: The child has forsaken its father. The song goes on to remind Israelites of God’s past faithfulness, Israel’s apostasy, God’s consequent self-withdrawal and chastisement. ‘I kill and I make alive; I wound and I heal.’ The metaphor of God as a rock is used repeatedly. Moses encourages his people to obey the law. God commands Moses to go up Mount Nebo, view the promised land, and then die.


33

Moses blesses children of Israel before his death, names each tribe of Israel. He concludes by telling Israel how blessed it is. God is Israel’s refuge and strength. The enemies’ high places will be destroyed.


34

Moses goes up Mount Nebo, and views promised land. Moses dies, aged 120 – though he still had his natural vigour. Moses is buried by the Lord, in an unknown grave. Israel mourns for Moses. Joshua succeeds Moses as Israel’s leader. Noone after Moses knew the Lord face to face.

Numbers

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1

God asks Moses to number the children of Israel who are able to go to war. Census taken – 603,550 potential soldiers in all. The Levites are not counted, but assigned to care for the Tabernacle.


2

God arrangements of the tribes’ tents around the tabernacle. The Levites’ camp is in the middle, closest to the Tabernacle.


3

Sons of Aaron appointed as the priestly tribe. Census of Aaron’s descendants taken. God arranges the tent locations of Levites according to family. Levites replace the firstborn, who had been consecrated to God up to this point. There were 22,273 firstborn sons in Israel; and there were only 22,000 Levite males. The extra 273 were given a monetary value (five shekels for each one individually), and the money was given to the tabernacle as redemption money.


4

Levites numbered according to families; instructions given them regarding the packing of the tabernacle. Various Levite families are assigned various roles.


5

Lepers and the unclean must be put outside the camp. The laws of recompense is to pay back 120%. The money is to be paid to the priests if the person to be recompensed is dead. Every Israelite has a right to partake in the offerings that he has bought. If a man is suspicious of his wife, but there is no evidence against her, she shall drink bitter water in front of the priest. (The water has been made bitter by the dust of the tabernacle floor, and an oath containing a curse.) If she has committed adultery, her belly will swell and her thigh will rot.


6

People may take a Nazarite vow to separate themselves unto the Lord. No alcoholic drink permitted, nor shaving or cutting hair, nor coming into contact with anything dead. If anyone dies very suddenly by him, he must shave his head and offer a sin offering a week later. Offerings are made at the end of the Nazarite period.


7

Moses anoints and sancitifies the Tabernacle. He gives to the prominent Levite families mentioned in chapter 4 the things they need to carry out their offices. Priestly representatives from each tribe make a series of offerings.


8

Moses and Aaron purify the sons of Levi through a sin offering and a burnt offering. The Levites shave themselves and wear clean clothes for the occasion. The Levites are thus made separate. The years of active service are from 25 to 50.


9

God commands the keeping of the Passover. If anyone has been defiled by a dead body, they must celebrate the Passover on the fourteenth day of the second month, rather than on the fourteenth day of the first month, like everybody else. If anyone does not keep the Passover without a good reason, he shall be cut off from his people. A stranger who wishes to observe the Passover may be allowed to do so, provided he observes the same regulations as the Israelites. The pillar of cloud/fire leads the Israelites, determining when they stay and when they move on.


10

Two silver trumpets are made so the Levites can call the assembly to the Tabernacle. The trumpets are also used to signal war, on feast days, and at the beginning of each month. The cloud leads the Israelites from the wilderness of Sinai into the wilderness of Paran. The Israelites march as an army – the tribes are listed in order, along with the Merarites carrying the tabernacle, and the Kohathites carrying the sanctuary. Moses entreats Hobab the Midianite (his father-in-law) to accompany them through the wilderness. He refuses, so Moses entreats him further. They follow the cloud.


11

Israelites complain about having nothing to eat but manna, and God scorches them with fire. Moses intercedes for them, and the fire ceases. Moses complains about having to provide for his people. God tells Moses to gather seventy elders, who will share his burden. God promises meat – so much that it will become loathsome to the Israelites. The seventy prophesy. Eldad and Medad, two of the elected seventy, also prophesy, but not at the tabernacle. Joshua objects to them prophesying in the camp, but Moses says he wishes all his people were prophets, and is content with what they do. Israelites eat quails that drop from the sky, suffer plague, and move to Hazeroth.


12

Miriam and Aaron speak against Moses because of an Ethiopian woman he has married. They bitterly say that God has spoken through them as well as through Moses. God rebukes them, and vindicates him, saying He speaks to him face to face. Miriam is punished with leprosy, but then healed. The Israelites move to Paran.


13

Moses sends twelve Israelite spies into Canaan. The spies return after forty days. The spy Caleb advises Moses to possess it, but the other spies are afraid, saying the men are as giants, and the cities well-fortified.


14

Israelites murmur against Moses and long for Egypt after the spies’ reports. Joshua speaks encouragingly of the land of milk and honey. Moses pleads to God to forgive Israelites. God pardons their iniquity, but says that all those above the age of twenty who complained will not see the promised land. Caleb and Joshua will be rewarded for his faith, however. The Israelites must wander forty years in wilderness, to correspond to the forty days of spying. The unfaithful spies die from the plague. The Israelites repent, seek to enter the promised land, and ascend the mountain in order to do so, but are driven back by the Amalekites.


15

When the Israelites come to the promised land, they will offer various offerings. Moses receives instructions for offerings for sins committed in ignorance. A man gathers sticks on Sabbath and is stoned. The Israelites are instructed to put blue ribbon on their clothes, as the sign they are God’s people.


16

Korah (a Levite), Dathan, Abiram (Reubenites) and 250 others rebel against Moses. Korah argues that all the congregation is holy, not just Moses and Aaron. Moses tells the rebels to come to the tabnernacles the next day with censers and incense. Fire destroys the 250, and the ground opens and swallows up Dathan and Abiram and their tents. The censers are the men who are burned up are made into hammered plates as coverings for the altar, as a reminder that only sons of Aaron are entitled to carry out sacerdotalk duties. Israel complains; 14700 men die from plague from God, which is stopped following a sacrificial intercession from Aaron.


17

Twelve rods (one for each tribe) are brought to tabernacle. The names of the tribe are written on the rods, while Aaron’s name is written on the rod of the Levites. Only Aaron’s rod blossomed, signifying the Levites’ role in ministry. The Israelites are overawed, and anxious.


18

God speaks to Aaron about the duties of Levites, Aaron’s sons and himself in tabernacle. The Levites have no inheritance, for ‘I am your portion and inheritance’. The Levites are entitled to tithes. A heave offering is to be offered from the tithe.


19

God tells Moses and Aaron how Aaron’s son, Eleazar, should sacrifice a red heifer (burning most of the blood, not completely draining it out from the jugular as usual). The heifer is then burnt in its entirety, taken outside the camp, and the ashes sprinkled in water. The priest who does the burning is to be ceremonially unclean until evening. This is purification water, to be used when anyone touches a dead body, on the third and seventh day of a seven day period of uncleanness.


20

Israel moves to the wilderness of Zin. Miriam dies. Israelites complain of thirst, so Moses is instructed to strike a rock, which springs forth with water. Ar Meribah, Moses says, ‘Hear now, you rebels! Must we bring water for you out of this rock?’ For this presumption, attributing the miracle to his own powers, God punishes Moses by telling him that he will not enter the promised land. The Edomites refuse passage to the Israelites. Israel avoids Edom, and moves to Mount Hor. Aaron and Eleazar are taken up Mount Hor, and Aaron dies there, again in punishment for Moses’ presumptiom. Eleazar is the new high priest. Israel mourns for Aaron for thirty days.


21

Israel defeats Arad, a Canaanite king. The Israelites complain, and are attacked by fiery serpents. Moses builds a bronze serpent – when anyone who has been bitten looks at it, they survive. Israelites journey into Moab. They are refused passage through the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, so kill him and occupy his land, which includes the city of Heshbon. They also defeat king Og in the land of Bashan.


22

Balak, king of Moab, fears the advancing Israelites, and asks the prophet Balaam to curse them. God warns Balaam that the Israelites are blessed, but when Balak importunes further, God tells him that he may only say the words which God speaks to him. God’s anger is aroused against Balaam, and He sends an angel to kill him. The donkey Balaam rides takes evasive manoeuvres, and crushes Balaam’s foot. Balaam beats the donkey, which complains about its treatment. The angel also castigates the Balaam, who is then instructed to go to Balak. Balak takes Balaam to the high places of Baal, so they can see the extent of the Israelites.


23

Balak and Balaam offer sacrifices. Balaam seeks God’s will. Balaam blesses Israel against Balak’s request. This is repeated in another location.


24

Balaam’s third blessing: ‘blessed is he who blesses you, and cursed is he who curses you.’ Fourth prophecy – a star who shall come out of Jacob to destroy all enemies.


25

Israelites commit whoredom with Moabites and bow down before their gods. The offenders are hanged. Phinehas stops a spreading plague by running through an Israelite (Zimri) and a Midianite woman (Cozbi) he had taken. 24,000 die from the plague. God blessed Phinehas with the promise that he would be the descendant of Aaron through which the priesthood passed.


26

Census of Israelites 20 years and up who are able to go to war. Extensive list – 600,001,730 in all. Their inheritance of land will be determined by lot. The census of Levites is given separately.


27

Daughters of Zelophehad from the tribe of Manasseh say to Moses that their father died without male issue. God tells Moses if a man dies without male heirs, his inheritance shall pass to a daughter, or failing that, a brother or other kinsman. God tells Moses to ascend Mount Abarim to survey the land promised to the Israelites. Moses instructed to confer his authority on Joshua.


28

God tells Moses procedures for morning and evening sacrifices, Sabbath, monthly, passover and firstfruit sacrifices.


29

First day of seventh month – blowing of trumpets. Instructions given for the offerings to made on the tenth day of the seventh month (Day of Atonement), and for the offerings made on seven consecutive days starting on the fifteen day of seventh month (Feast of Tabernacles).


30

A man must keep his vow. A woman must keep her vow, unless her father or husband (depending what age she is) disallow her on the day that she makes it, in which she is not bound. Vows of widows or divorced woman stand in all circumstances.


31

God commands Israel to take revenge war against the Midianites for corrupting Israel in Numbers 25. Moses sends a thousand from each tribe to war. Moses orders soldiers to kill all males (adult and child) and adult females. Balaam is killed. The female children who have not known man are kept alive. Those who have killed are ceremonially unclean, and must remain outside of the camp for seven days, and be cleansed with purifying water on the third and seventh day. Spoils are to be purified by fire or water, depending on what it is. Moses divides up the spoil fairly (offering some to Lord) to prevent a ‘every man for himself’ approach.


32

Children of Reuben and Gad request land for cattle to the east of the Jordan (the land of Gilead). Moses is anxious and fears that their sin will find them out, but grants their request, provided they supply men for war. Half the tribe of Manasseh also settle east of the Jordan.


33

List of journeys and places stayed by children of Israel. God commands Israel to take over the land of Canaan and destroy all idolatry. If the Canaanites are not destroyed, they will be thorns in the Israelite’s side.


34

God tells Moses the borders of the land of inheritance. Joshua and Eleazar are appointed to divide the land. Leaders from each of the twelve tribes are appointed to help.


35

The Levites are gives 48 cities and suburbs (‘common-lands’) from across the territories of the other tribes. 6 of the 48 cities are to be refuge cities, to which those accused of manslaughter may flee. Examples of what constitutes murder – striking with an iron implement, or a stone, or lying in wait for someone, or throwing something. Examples of manslaughter – pushing without enmity, throwing a stone and hitting someone by accident, and so on. The manslayer may flee from the avenger of blood to a city of refuge, and remain there until the death of the high priest. The manslayer is at risk if he leaves the city of refuge. An avenger shall not be deemed guilty if he kills a manslayer who has left the city of refuge. Two witnesses are required for a murder conviction. If someone was guilty of murder, they could not make monetary restitution in the place of their life. Unjudged murderers pollute the land.


36

Fathers of Gilead speak with Moses about daughters’ inheritance – if their daughters marry someone from another tribe, the land will pass to that tribe. Advised by God, Moses commands that when daughters inherit, they must marry someone from the same tribe.

Leviticus

Leviticus

Sacrifice	Animals	Hand-laying	Use of blood	Priestly portions	Lay portions
Burnt	Cattle, sheep, goats, birds	Yes	Poured on altar sides	No	No
Peace	Cattle, sheep, goats	Yes	Poured on altar sides	Yes	Yes
Sin	Cattle, sheep, goats, birds	Yes	Smeared on altars, sprinkled inside tent before the veil	Yes (except where it was for the sin of priests)	No
Guilt	Rams	Probably	Poured on altar sides	Yes	No

1

Instructions spoken by the Lord from the tabernacle. Offering to be without blemish and offered willingly. Lord tells Moses the instructions for burnt offerings of bulls, sheep, goats and birds. Blood sprinkled on altar. The offerer must lay his hand on the offering prior to sacrifice. The person who brings the offering makes the kill.


2

God tells Moses the description and instructions for grain offerings and firstfruits: unleavened with oil, salt and frankincense. Some of grain is burnt (the memorial portion;), the rest given to the priests. For firstfruits, the heads of grain are to be roasted.


3

God tells Moses the description and instructions for peace offerings of cattle, sheep and goats. The bit that is burnt is the fat that covers the entrails, the kidneys and the fat on them, and the fatty lobe attached to the liver. Fat or blood is not to be eaten.


4

God tells Moses the description and instructions for sin offerings for the priest (bull), congregation (bull), rulers (goat) and common people (goat). For the bull offerings, everything apart from the fat and kidneys (burnt on the altar as before) is burnt outside the camp. The blood is smeared on the main altar, and on the incense altar in the holy place, and before the veil of the sanctuary. For the goat offerings, the remaining portion of the animal is not burnt outside the camp.


5

A sin offering is appropriate when he witnesses something and does not testify, when one offers false witness, if one is unclean or touches anything unclean, or speaks a false oath. A sin offering can be a lamb, turtledoves or flour, depending on what the person offering can afford. A memorial portion is burnt, the rest given to the priests. If something in the tabernacle is sinned against in some way, a guilt offering must be made: reparation is to be paid, and another 20% given to the priest. A ram was sacrificed in addition. The offence can be accidental.


6

God tells Moses that a person who has sinned against a neighbor by lying or theft must make full restitution, plus another 20%, in addition to the trespass offering of a ram. The fire of the altar will be kept burning at all times. The ashes of burnt offering will remain on the altar until the next morning, then placed outside the camp in a clean place. A portion of a grain offering belonged to the sons of Aaron, but the grain offering in a consecration ceremony must be completely burnt. A portion of the sin offering was left over, and was to be given to the priests. Anything touched by the sin offering or its blood had to be cleansed in a special manner because the sacrificial victim was thought to be infected with the sin of the one who brought the offering. Any portion from the sin offering made for national atonement could not be eaten: the whole animal had to be burnt. Only portions from a sin offering made on behalf of an individual could be eaten.


7

God tells Moses laws regarding guilt offering – fat and kidneys is the memorial portion, everything else belongs to be priests, as above. A peace offering could accompany a thanksgiving offering. The meat from a peace offering had to be eaten in a fellowship meal within three days. Ceremonial purity was required of anyone who wanted to participate in the fellowship meal associated with the peace offering. A breast or a thigh from the priest offering, though eaten by a priest, may be dedicated to God by being waved or lifted (heaved) above the altar respectively. These kinds of offering are called the wave offering and the heave offering.


8

Aaron and sons washed, dressed, anointed and consecrated as priests for seven days. Sin, burnt, consecration and wave offerings are made. Blood sprinkled on the priestly garments.


9

After the seven days of consecration, all Israel meets at the tabernacle. Atonement offerings are made for Aaron’s sin, and for the sin of the people. God’s glory appears to Israel: fire from God consumes the offering.


10

Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, offer strange fire to God. God’s fire devours Nadab and Abiju; mourning for them is forbidden. Drunkenness not permitted at the tabernacle. The preists’ portions to be eaten in a clean place. Moses angrily wants to know why Eleazar and Ithamar don’t eat the priestly portions of a sin offering; Aaron replies on their behalf, that they are all mourning for the deaths of Nadab and Abihu. Moses is content with this explanation.


11

God speaks to Moses and Aaron the law of beasts: it is permitted to eat animals with have cloven hooves and chew the cud (so not a camel, a hare a pig). Sea creatures permitted if they have both fins and scales (so no shellfish). Various birds and most insects are proscribed. Anyone touching the carcass of an unclean anima, or touching anything that creeps,l must wash his clothes, and be unclean until evening. If an unclean animal crawls inside an earthen vessel, the vessel must be broken. Touching a clean animal which has died naturally also makes you unclean.


12

A woman is unclean seven days after giving birth to a male child. On the eighth day, the baby is circumcised. The woman is not allowed into the sanctuary for another thirty three days. A woman is clean for two weeks for a female child, and is not allowed into the sanctuary for sixty six days. Sacrifice required after childbirth – a lamb, pigeon or turtledove.


13

The priests will inspect people who shows signs of leprosy, and declares them unclean if it spreads, dwelling outside the camp if necessary. Clothes are to be destroyed if leprosy takes hold in them.


14

Rituals for cleansed lepers. One bird was killed in an earthen vessel over running water, and its blood was applied to a living bird, to some cedar wood, to some scarlet fabric, and to some hyssop. Then, using these things, the blood was sprinkled on the one who was cleansed from leprosy. The living bird was then let go. Ex-lepers must wash all their clothes and shave all their hair off. For seven days they are permitted in the camp, but outside their tents. On the eighth day, a lamb (or two pigeons or doves if they are too poor to afford a lamb) is given as a sin offering. Priests inspect houses where leprosy is suspected – it seems ‘leprosy’ can include fungus and mould infections. Cleansing a house with leprosy requires a similar ritual as for an individual, with two birds.


15

The law of issues and discharges – offering of two pigeons or turtledoves required. Sensible hygiene precautions. When a man discharged semen (either accidentally or in sex), he had to cleanse himself and respect a brief time of ceremonial impurity. A woman who menstruates shall be set apart seven days. Anyone touching anything she sits or lies on shall be unclean too.


16

God tells Moses the instructions for priestly clothing. On the Day of Atonement, two goats are required – one is sacrificed, the other (the scapegoat, which the priest lays hands on and confesses the sins of the Israelites) is cast into the wilderness. The priest atones for himself with a bull before he atones for the people with a goat. The blood of the bull and goat are sprinkled o and in front of the mercy seat, then the animals are burnt outside the camp.


17

Sacrifice must be at the tabernacle and by the appointed priests. No eating blood. If an animal was killed in a hunt and could not be properly bled as in a regular butchering, then the blood was to be poured out on the ground and covered with dust.


18

Incest (‘uncovering the nakedness’) among immediate family prohibited. No lying with a woman ‘at her time of customary impurity’. Molech worship forbidden. Male homosexuality forbidden (in context, this probably is a prohibition against using male prostitutes in pagan temples). Bestiality forbidden.


19

Revere parents, keep Sabbath, refrain from idolatry, eat peace offerings on the day you offer it, do not completely harvest a field so the poor can glean from it, be honest, show compassion, be just and truthful, love your neighbour as yourself, do not let your livestock breed with another kind, do not sow your field with mixed seed, do not wear garment with both wool and linen, do not lie with slavegirls (the penalty is a scourging), be compassionate to the blind and deaf, do not eat the fruit of Canaan for the first three years of entering it, do not divine or soothsay, do not trim beard or the sides of the head, respect the elderly, do not mistreat strangers.


20

Molech-worship punishable by stoning. The occult is prohibited. Cursing a parent, and committing adultery, incest, homosexuality or bestiality punishable by death.


21

Priests are forbidden from touching dead bodies, or from imitating pagan mourning practices. A priest shall not marry a harlot or a divorced woman. The daughter of a priest playing the harlot will be burnt to death. A high preist is not allowed to mourn by uncovering his head or tearing his clothes; he must marry a virgin. Ministering priests must be free from physical defects.


22

Things that can defile a priest: leprosy, a discharge of semen, touching a corpse or something that creeps. Only the priest and his household could eat of the offerings. Sacrificed animals must be without blemish.
Trumpets, Atonement and Tabernacles occur in the seventh month: the seventh month is thus holy, as the seventh day is.

24

Tabernacle lamp to burn constantly. The showbread to be set in order every Sabbath. An Egyptian blasphemer is stoned to death. Eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth. Lord tells Moses instructions for candlestick and showbread. A man with an Israelite mother and an Egyptian father blasphemes God during a fight, and is stoned. Blasphemy is punishable by death – this applies to aliens as well as to Israelites. Killed or maimed animals are to be compensated for financially, but murder must be repaid with death.


25

Every seventh year (a sabbatical year) fields are to be left fallow. God will ensure the sixth year is bountiful so there is enough to eat on sabbatical years. Every seventh sabbatical year is the year of Jubilee – land restored to its original owners. No land to be sold permanently. A kinsman-redeemer may buy back land that has been sold. If a house in a city has been bought over a year ago, however, it becomes the permanent possession of its owner. No usury is permitted when lending to the poor. As in the redemption of land, the kinsman-redeemer would buy the Hebrew slave out of servitude if he could, and the price was reckoned in relation to the year of Jubilee.


26

Obedience will be rewarded with prosperity, disobedience with curses – sounds Deuteronomical, like a suzerain treaty. Genuine repentance will be accepted.


27

Vow of consecration – an amount is paid according to the age and sex of the person to be consecrated. Animals and houses can be consecrated too, and redeemed. A tithe belongs to the Lord.

23

Sacred days:

·         The Sabbath – every seventh day

·         Unleavened Bread – the week after Passover. On the second day, there is Firstfruits – a sheaf of barley is waved by priest, then offered to God

·         Weeks (known as Pentecost to Christians, Shavuot to Jews) – after fifty days have been counted from the offering of Firstfruits. Firstfruits of wheat are offered in Weeks

·         Trumpets – Jewish New Year in September. No work; offering of fire.

·         Atonement (Yom Kippur) – for the ‘afflicting of souls’

·         Tabernacles (Succoth) – dwelling in booths to recall the temporary accommodation during the years in the wilderness